The non-strategic nature of linguistic long-term memory effects in verbal short-term memory

Kowialiewski, Benjamin; Majerus, Steve

doi:10.1016/j.jml.2018.03.005

Request a copy

Article (Scientific journals)

The non-strategic nature of linguistic long-term memory effects in verbal short-term memory

Kowialiewski, Benjamin; Majerus, Steve

2018 • In Journal of Memory and Language, 101, p. 64-83

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Permalink
https://hdl.handle.net/2268/221976

DOI
10.1016/j.jml.2018.03.005

Files (1)Send to Details Statistics Bibliography Similar publications

Files

Full Text

1-s2.0-S0749596X18300299-main.pdf

Publisher postprint (1.94 MB)

Request a copy

All documents in ORBi are protected by a user license.

Send to

RIS BibTex APA Chicago Permalink X Linkedin

Details

Keywords :

Short-term memory; Linguistic knowledge; Running span

Abstract :

[en] The contribution of lexical and semantic knowledge to verbal short-term memory (vSTM) span is explained by language-based models, assuming that vSTM is deeply grounded within the linguistic system with to-be-remembered items being activated in a non-strategic and automatic manner. However, direct evidence for a non-strategic account of lexical and semantic contributions to vSTM span is scarce. In this study, we assessed the influence of several types of long-term linguistic knowledge (lexicality, lexical frequency, semantic similarity and imageability) on vSTM using a fast encoding running span procedure preventing any strategic processes during encoding. We observed reliable effects of lexicality (words vs. nonwords, Experiment 1), lexical frequency (high vs. low frequency words, Experiment 2) and semantic similarity (related vs. unrelated lists, Experiment 3) on running span performance. However, word imageability (high vs. low imageability words, Experiment 4) did not consistently impact running span performance. Experiment 5 showed that the imageability effect only appears in standard immediate serial recall conditions which do not prevent list-strategic encoding. This study provides novel evidence for linguistic accounts of vSTM by demonstrating a robust impact of lexical and surface-level semantic knowledge on vSTM in non-strategic, fast-encoding conditions.

Research Center/Unit :

PsyNCog - Psychologie et Neuroscience Cognitives - ULiège

Disciplines :

Theoretical & cognitive psychology

Author, co-author :

Kowialiewski, Benjamin ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de Psychologie > Psychopathologie cognitive

Majerus, Steve ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de Psychologie > Psychopathologie cognitive

Language :

English

Title :

The non-strategic nature of linguistic long-term memory effects in verbal short-term memory

Publication date :

2018

Journal title :

Journal of Memory and Language

ISSN :

0749-596X

eISSN :

1096-0821

Publisher :

Elsevier, Atlanta, United States

Volume :

101

Pages :

64-83

Peer reviewed :

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Funders :

F.R.S.-FNRS - Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique

Available on ORBi :

since 10 April 2018

Statistics

Number of views

109 (12 by ULiège)

Number of downloads

1 (0 by ULiège)

More statistics

Scopus citations^®

Scopus citations^®
without self-citations

OpenCitations

OpenAlex citations

Bibliography

Acheson, D.J., Macdonald, M.C., Verbal working memory and language production: Common approaches to the serial ordering of verbal information. Psychological Bulletin 135:1 (2009), 50–68, 10.1037/a0014411.
Acheson, D.J., Postle, B.R., Macdonald, M.C., The interaction of concreteness and phonological similarity in verbal working memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 36:1 (2010), 17–36, 10.1037/a0017679.
Anderson, J.E., Holcomb, P.J., Auditory and visual semantic priming using different stimulus onset asynchronies: An event-related brain potential study. Psychophysiology 32:2 (1995), 177–190.
Atkins, A.S., Reuter-lorenz, P.A., False working memories ? Semantic distortion in a mere 4 seconds. Memory & Cognition 36:1 (2008), 74–81, 10.3758/MC.36.1.74.
Bailey, H., Dunlosky, J., Kane, M.J., Contribution of strategy use to performance on complex and simple span tasks. Memory & Cognition 39:3 (2011), 447–461, 10.3758/s13421-010-0034-3.
Barrouillet, P., & Camos, V. (2017). The time-based resource-sharing model of working memory. In The Cognitive Neuroscience of Working Memory (pp. 59–80).
Barrouillet, P., Bernardin, S., Camos, V., Time constraints and resource sharing in adults’ working memory spans. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General 133:1 (2004), 83–100, 10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.83.
Besner, D., Davelaar, E., Basic processes in reading: Two phonological codes. Canadian Journal of Psychology 36:4 (1982), 701–711.
Binder, J.R., In defense of abstract conceptual representations. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 23:4 (2016), 1096–1108, 10.3758/s13423-015-0909-1.
Binder, J.R., Desai, R.H., Graves, W.W., Conant, L.L., Where is the semantic system? A critical review and meta-analysis of 120 functional neuroimaging studies. Cerebral Cortex Cortex 19:12 (2009), 2767–2796, 10.1093/cercor/bhp055.
Botto, M., Basso, D., Ferrari, M., Palladino, P., When working memory updating requires updating: Analysis of serial position in a running memory task. Acta Psychologica 148 (2014), 123–129, 10.1016/j.actpsy.2014.01.012.
Brener, R., An experimental investigation of memory span. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 26(5), 1940, 467.
Bunting, M., Cowan, N., Saults, J.S., How does running memory span work?. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 59:10 (2006), 1691–1700, 10.1080/17470210600848402.
Campoy, G., & Baddeley, A. D. (2008). Phonological and semantic strategies in immediate serial recall. Memory (Hove, England), 16(4), 329–340. http://doi.org/10.1080/09658210701867302.
Campoy, G., Castellà, J., Provencio, V., Hitch, G.J., Baddeley, A.D., Automatic semantic encoding in verbal short-term memory: Evidence from the concreteness effect. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 68:4 (2015), 759–778, 10.1080/17470218.2014.966248.
Connine, C.M., Mullennix, J., Shernoff, E., Yelen, J., Word familiarity and frequency in visual and auditory word recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 16:6 (1990), 1084–1096.
Content, A., Mousty, P., & Radeau, M. (1990). Brulex. Une base de données lexicales informatisée pour le français écrit et parlé. L'année Psychologique, 90(4), 551–566.
Corbin, L., Marquer, J., Individual differences in Sternberg's memory scanning task. Acta Psychologica 131:2 (2009), 153–162, 10.1016/j.actpsy.2009.04.001.
Cowan, N., Attention and memory: An integrated framework. 1995, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England.
Cowan, N., The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 24:1 (2001), 87–185, 10.1017/S0140525X01003922.
Cowan, N., Elliott, E.M., Saults, J.S., Morey, C.C., Mattox, S., Hismjatullina, A., Conway, A.R.A., On the capacity of attention: Its estimation and its role in working memory and cognitive aptitudes. Cognitive Psychology 51:1 (2005), 42–100, 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2004.12.001.
Cowan, N., An embedded-processes model of working memory. Miyake, A., Shah, P., (eds.) Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control, 1999, Cambridge University Press, New York, 62–101.
Dell, G.S., A spreading-activation theory of retrieval in sentence production. Psychological Review 93:3 (1986), 283–321.
Dienes, Z., Using Bayes to get the most out of non-significant results. Frontiers in Psychology 5:781 (2014), 1–17, 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00781.
Dollaghan, C., Biber, M., Campbell, T.F., Constituent syllable effects in a nonsense-word repetition task. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 36:5 (1993), 1051–1054.
Dollaghan, C., Campbell, T.F., Nonword repetition and child. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 41:5 (1998), 1136–1146.
Dunlosky, J., Kane, M.J., The contributions of strategy use to working memory span: A comparison of strategy assessment methods. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 60:9 (2007), 1227–1245, 10.1080/17470210600926075.
Evans, G. A. L., Ralph, M. A. L., & Woollams, A. M. (2017). Seeing the Meaning: Top – Down Effects on Letter Identification, 8(April), 1–13. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00322.
Evans, G.A.L., Ralph, M.A.L., Woollams, A.M., What's in a word ? A parametric study of semantic influences on visual word recognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 19:2 (2012), 325–331, 10.3758/s13423-011-0213-7.
Fallon, A.B., Mak, E., Tehan, G., Daly, C., Lexicality and phonological similarity: A challenge for the retrieval-based account of serial recall?. Memory 13:3/4 (2005), 349–356, 10.1080/09658210344000215.
Fiebach, C.J., Friederici, A.D., Smith, E.E., Swinney, D., Lateral inferotemporal cortex maintains conceptual—Semantic representations in verbal working memory. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 19:12 (2007), 2035–2049.
Fiore, F., Borella, E., Mammarella, I.C., De Beni, R., Age differences in verbal and visuo-spatial working memory updating: Evidence from analysis of serial position curves. Memory 20:1 (2012), 14–27, 10.1080/09658211.2011.628320.
Flegal, K.E., Reuter-Lorenz, P.A., Get the gist? The effects of processing depth on false recognition in short-term and long-term memory. Memory & Cognition 42:5 (2014), 701–711, 10.3758/s13421-013-0391-9.
Gathercole, S.E., Frankish, C.R., Pickering, S.J., Peaker, S., Phonotactic influences on short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 25:1 (1999), 84–95, 10.1037/0278-7393.25.3.562.
Gathercole, S.E., Pickering, S.J., Hall, M., Peaker, S.M., Dissociable lexical and phonological influences on serial recognition and serial recall. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Section A 54:1 (2001), 1–30, 10.1080/027.
Guérard, K., Saint-Aubin, J., Assessing the effect of lexical variables in backward recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 38:2 (2012), 312–324, 10.1037/a0025481.
Gupta, P., A computational model of nonword repetition, immediate serial recall, and nonword learning. Thorn, A., Page, M., (eds.) Interactions between short-term and long-term memory in the verbal domain, 2009, Psychology Press, Hove, UK, 108–135.
Hill, F., Korhonen, A., Bentz, C., A quantitative empirical analysis of the abstract/concrete distinction. Cognitive Science 38:1 (2014), 162–177, 10.1111/cogs.12076.
Hockey, R., Rate of presentation in running memory and direct manipulation of input-processing strategies. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 25:1 (1973), 104–111, 10.1080/14640747308400328.
Hulme, C., Maughan, S., Brown, G.D.A., Memory for familiar and unfamiliar words: Evidence for a long-term memory contribution to short-term memory span. Journal of Memory and Language 30:6 (1991), 685–701.
Hulme, C., Newton, P., Cowan, N., Stuart, G., Brown, G., Think before you speak: Pauses, memory search, and trace redintegration processes in verbal memory span. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 25:2 (1999), 447–463.
Hulme, C., Roodenrys, S., Schweickert, R., Brown, G.D.A., Martin, S., Stuart, G., Word-frequency effects on short-term memory tasks: Evidence for a redintegration process in immediate serial recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23(5), 1997, 1217.
Hulme, C., Stuart, G., Brown, G.D.A., Morin, C., High- and low-frequency words are recalled equally well in alternating lists: Evidence for associative effects in serial recall. Journal of Memory and Language 49:4 (2003), 500–518, 10.1016/S0749-596X(03)00096-2.
Hurlstone, M.J., Hitch, G.J., Baddeley, A.D., Memory for serial order across domains: An overview of the literature and directions for future research. Psychological Bulletin, 140(2), 2014, 339, 10.1037/a0034221.
Jarrold, C., Cocksey, J., Dockerill, E., Phonological similarity and lexicality effects in children's verbal short-term memory: Concerns about the interpretation of probed recall data. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 61:2 (2008), 324–340, 10.1080/17470210701202210.
Jefferies, E., Frankish, C.R., Lambon Ralph, M.A., Lexical and semantic binding in verbal short-term memory. Journal of Memory and Language 54:1 (2006), 81–98, 10.1016/j.jml.2005.08.001.
Jefferies, E., Frankish, C.R., Lambon Ralph, M.A., Lexical and semantic influences on item and order memory in immediate serial recognition: Evidence from a novel task. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 59:5 (2006), 949–964, 10.1080/02724980543000141.
Jeffreys, H., The theory of probability. 1998, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
Kelley, K., Confidence intervals for standardized effect sizes: Theory, application, and implementation. Journal of Statistical Software 20:8 (2007), 1–24.
Kelley, K. (2017). MBESS (Version 4.0.0 and higher). Accessible from < http://cran.r-project.org>.
Kruschke, J.K., Bayesian assessment of null values via parameter estimation and model comparison. Perspectives on Psychological Science 6:3 (2011), 299–312, 10.1177/1745691611406925.
Lakens, D., Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: A practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs. Frontiers in Psychology 4:863 (2013), 1–12, 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863.
Landauer, T.K., Dumais, S.T., A solution to Plato's problem: The latent semantic analysis theory of acquisition, induction, and representation of knowledge. Psychological Review 104:2 (1997), 211–240.
Logie, R.H., Della Sala, S., Laiacona, M., Chalmers, P., Wyn, V., Group aggregates and individual reliability: The case of verbal short-term memory. Memory & Cognition 24:3 (1996), 305–321, 10.3758/BF03213295.
MacGregor, L.J., Pulvermuller, F., van Casteren, M., Shtyrov, Y., Ultra-rapid access to words in the brain. Nature Communications, 3, 2012, 711, 10.1038/ncomms1715.
Majerus, S., Language repetition and short-term memory: An integrative framework. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 2013, 357, 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00357.
Majerus, S., D'Argembeau, A., Perez, T.M., Belayachi, S., Linden, M. Van Der, Collette, F., The commonality of neural networks for verbal and visual short-term memory. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 22:11 (2010), 2570–2593.
Majerus, S., Martinez, T., Oberauer, K., Two distinct origins of long-term learning effects in verbal short-term memory. Journal of Memory and Language 66:1 (2012), 38–51, 10.1016/j.jml.2011.07.006.
Majerus, S., Norris, D., Patterson, K., What does a patient with semantic dementia remember in verbal short-term memory? Order and sound but not words. Cognitive Neuropsychology 24:2 (2007), 131–151, 10.1080/02643290600989376.
Majerus, S., Van der Linden, M., Mulder, L., Meulemans, T., Peters, F., Verbal short-term memory reflects the sublexical organization of the phonological language network: Evidence from an incidental phonotactic learning paradigm. Journal of Memory and Language 51:2 (2004), 297–306, 10.1016/j.jml.2004.05.002.
Marslen-Wilson, W.D., Functional parallelism in spoken word-recognition. Cognition 25:1–2 (1987), 71–102, 10.1016/0010-0277(87)90005-9.
Martin, R.C., Lesch, M.F., Bartha, M.C., Independence of input and output phonology in word processing and short-term memory. Journal of Memory and Language 41:1 (1999), 3–29.
Martin, N., Saffran, E.M., Repetition and verbal STM in transcortical sensory aphasia: A case study. Brain and Language 39:2 (1990), 254–288.
Martin, N., Saffran, E.M., Language and auditory- verbal short-term memory impairments: Evidence for common underlying processes. Cognitive Neuropsychology 14:5 (1997), 641–682, 10.1080/026432997381402.
Martin, N., Saffran, E.M., Dell, G.S., Recovery in deep dysphasia: Evidence for a relation between auditory–verbal STM capacity and lexical errors in repetition. Brain and Language 52:1 (1996), 83–113.
Mathôt, S., Schreij, D., Theeuwes, J., OpenSesame: An open-source, graphical experiment builder for the social sciences. Behavior Research Methods 44:2 (2012), 314–324, 10.3758/s13428-011-0168-7.
McClelland, J.L., Elman, J.L., The TRACE model of speech perception. Cognitive Psychology 18:1 (1986), 1–86.
Melnik, N., Mapelli, I., Özkurt, T.E., Modulation of alpha oscillations is required for the suppression of semantic interference to avoid false memories in short term. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 2017, 10.1016/j.nlm.2017.05.007.
Miller, G.A., The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 1956, 81.
Miller, L.M., Roodenrys, S., The interaction of word frequency and concreteness in immediate serial recall. Memory & Cognition 37:6 (2009), 850–865, 10.3758/MC.37.6.850.
Miller, L.M., Roodenrys, S., Serial recall, word frequency, and mixed lists: The influence of item arrangement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 38:6 (2012), 1731–1740, 10.1037/a0028470.
Monnier, C., Bonthoux, F., The semantic-similarity effect in children: Influence of long-term knowledge on verbal short-term memory. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 29:4 (2011), 929–941, 10.1111/j.2044-835X.2010.02024.x.
Moore, M.W., Tompkins, C.A., Dollaghan, C.A., Manipulating articulatory demands in non-word repetition: A “late-8” non-word repetition task. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics 24:12 (2016), 997–1008, 10.3109/02699206.2010.510917.
Morrison, A.B., Rosenbaum, G.M., Fair, D., Chein, J.M., Variation in strategy use across measures of verbal working memory. Memory & Cognition 44:6 (2016), 922–936, 10.3758/s13421-016-0608-9.
Moseley, R.L., Pulvermu, F., Shtyrov, Y., Sensorimotor semantics on the spot: Brain activity dissociates between conceptual categories within 150 ms. Scientific Reports 3 (2013), 1–7, 10.1038/srep01928.
Murdock, B.B., Item and order information in short-term serial memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 105:2 (1976), 191–216.
Nee, E.D., Jonides, J., Dissociable contributions of prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus to short-term memory: Evidence for a 3-state model of memory. NeuroImage 54:2 (2011), 1540–1548, 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.09.002.
New, B. (2006). Lexique 3: Une nouvelle base de données lexicales. Actes de La Conférence Traitement Automatique Des Langues Naturelles.
Oberauer, K., Access to information in working memory: Exploring the focus of attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 28:3 (2002), 411–421, 10.1037//0278-7393.28.3.411.
Palladino, P., Jarrold, C., Do updating tasks involve updating? Evidence from comparisons with immediate serial recall. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 61:3 (2008), 392–399, 10.1080/17470210701664989.
Papagno, C., Vernice, M., & Cecchetto, C. (2013). Phonology without semantics? Good enough for verbal short-term memory. Evidence from a patient with semantic dementia. Cortex, 49(3), 626–636. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2012.04.015.
Parmentier, F.B.R., Comesaña, M., Soares, A.P., Disentangling the effects of word frequency and contextual diversity on serial recall performance. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 70:1 (2017), 1–17, 10.1080/17470218.2015.1105268.
Patterson, K., Graham, N., Hodges, J.R., The impact of semantic memory loss on phonological representations. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 6:1 (1994), 57–69, 10.1162/jocn.1994.6.1.57.
Pexman, P.M., Lupker, S.J., Hino, Y., The impact of feedback semantics in visual word recognition: Number of features effects in lexical decision and naming tasks. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 9:3 (2002), 542–549.
Poirier, M., Saint-Aubin, J., Memory for related and unrelated words: Further evidence on the influence of semantic factors in immediate serial recall. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 48:2 (1995), 384–404, 10.1080/14640749508401396.
Poirier, M., Saint-Aubin, J., Immediate serial recall, word frequency, item identity and item position. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology 50:4 (1996), 408–412.
Poirier, M., Saint-Aubin, J., Word frequency effects in immediate serial recall: Item familiarity and item co-occurrence have the same effect. Memory 13:3–4 (2005), 325–332, 10.1080/09658210344000369.
Poirier, M., Saint-Aubin, J., Mair, A., Tehan, G., Tolan, A., Order recall in verbal short-term memory: The role of semantic networks. Memory & Cognition 43:3 (2015), 489–499, 10.3758/s13421-014-0470-6.
Pollack, I., Johnson, L.B., Knaff, P.R., Running memory span. Journal of Experimental Psychology 57:3 (1959), 137–146, 10.1037/h0046137.
Poncelet, M., & Van der Linden, M. (2003). L’évaluation du stock phonologique de la mémoire de travail. Revue de Neuropsychologie. Retrieved from papers3://publication/uuid/464CDE49-F0A0-4732-99FE-27857DD71D75.
Potter, M.C., Short-term conceptual memory for pictures. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 2:5 (1976), 509–522, 10.1037//0278-7393.2.5.509.
Potter, M.C., Wyble, B., Hagmann, C.E., McCourt, E.S., Detecting meaning in RSVP at 13 ms per picture. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics 76:2 (2014), 270–279, 10.3758/s13414-013-0605-z.
Quinlan, P.T., Roodenrys, S., Miller, L.M., Serial reconstruction of order and serial recall in verbal short-term memory. Memory & Cognition, 1–18, 2017, 10.3758/s13421-017-0719-y.
Ralph, M.A.L., Jefferies, E., Patterson, K., Rogers, T.T., The neural and computational bases of semantic cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 18 (2017), 42–55, 10.1038/nrn.2016.150.
Romani, C., McAlpine, S., Martin, R.C., Concreteness effects in different tasks: Implications for models of short-term memory. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 61:2 (2008), 292–323, 10.1080/17470210601147747.
Roodenrys, S., Quinlan, P.T., The effects of stimulus set size and word frequency on verbal serial recall. Memory 8:2 (2000), 71–78, 10.1080/096582100387623.
Rouder, J.N., Morey, R.D., A Bayes factor meta-analysis of Bem's ESP claim. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 18:4 (2011), 682–689, 10.3758/s13423-011-0088-7.
Roxbury, T., McMahon, K., Copland, D.A., An fMRI study of concreteness effects in spoken word recognition. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 10(1), 2014, 34, 10.1186/1744-9081-10-34.
Ruiz, R.M., Elosúa, M.R., Conditions for positive and negative recencies in running memory-span recognition. Acta Psychologica 144:2 (2013), 213–223, 10.1016/j.actpsy.2013.07.006.
Ruiz, R. M., Elosúa, M. R., & Lechuga, M. T. (2005). Old-fashioned responses in an updating memory task. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58a(5), 887–908. http://doi.org/10.1080/02724980443000395.
Sabsevitz, D.S., Medler, D.A., Seidenberg, M., Binder, J.R., Modulation of the semantic system by word imageability. NeuroImage 27:1 (2005), 188–200, 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.04.012.
Saint-Aubin, J., Ouellette, D., Poirier, M., Semantic similarity and immediate serial recall: Is there an effect on all trials. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 12:1 (2005), 171–177, 10.3758/BF03196364.
Saint-Aubin, J., Poirier, M., The influence of long-term memory factors on immediate serial recall: An item and order analysis. International Journal of Psychology 34:5–6 (1999), 347–352.
Saint-Aubin, J., Poirier, M., Immediate serial recall of words and nonwords: Tests of the retrieval-based hypothesis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 7:2 (2000), 332–340.
Savill, N., Ellis, A.W., Jefferies, E., Newly-acquired words are more phonologically robust in verbal short-term memory when they have associated semantic representations. Neuropsychologia, 1–13, 2016, 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.03.006.
Savill, N., Metcalfe, T., Ellis, A.W., Jefferies, E., Semantic categorisation of a word supports its phonological integrity in verbal short-term memory. Journal of Memory and Language 84 (2015), 128–138, 10.1016/j.jml.2015.06.003.
Schleepen, T.M.J., Markus, C.R., Jonkman, L.M., Dissociating the effects of semantic grouping and rehearsal strategies on event-related brain potentials. International Journal of Psychophysiology 94:3 (2014), 319–328, 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2014.09.007.
Schweickert, R., A multinomial processing tree model for degradation and redintegration in immediate recall. Memory & Cognition 21:2 (1993), 168–175.
Shtyrov, Y., Lenzen, M., First-pass neocortical processing of spoken language takes only 30 msec: Electrophysiological evidence. Cognitive Neuroscience 8:1 (2017), 24–38, 10.1080/17588928.2016.1156663.
Shulman, H.G., Encoding and retention of semantic and phonemic information in short-term memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 9:5 (1970), 499–508.
Team, J. (2017). JASP (Version 0.8.1.1)[Computer software].
Tse, C.-S., The role of associative strength in the semantic relatedness effect on immediate serial recall. Memory 17:8 (2009), 874–891, 10.1080/09658210903376250.
Tse, C.-S., Altarriba, J., Testing the associative-link hypothesis in immediate serial recall: Evidence from word frequency and word imageability effects. Memory 15:6 (2007), 675–690, 10.1080/09658210701467186.
Tse, C.-S., Li, Y., Altarriba, J., The effect of semantic relatedness on immediate serial recall and serial recognition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 64:12 (2011), 2425–2437, 10.1080/17470218.2011.604787.
Tubach, J. P., & Boë, L. J. (1990). Un corpus de transcription phonétique(300 000 phones). Constitution et exploitation statistique.
Tyler, L.K., Voice, J.K., Moss, H.E., The interaction of meaning and sound in spoken word recognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 7:2 (2000), 320–326, 10.3758/BF03212988.
Vitevitch, M.S., Luce, P.A., When words compete: Levels of processing in perception of spoken words. Psychological Science, 4(325–329), 1998.
Vitevitch, M.S., Luce, P.A., Probabilistic phonotactics and neighborhood activation in spoken word recognition. Journal of Memory and Language 40:3 (1999), 374–408.
Wagenmakers, E.-J., Wetzels, R., Borsboom, D., & Van, H. (2011). Why Psychologists Must Change the Way They Analyze Their Data: The Case of Psi: comment on Bem (2011).
Walker, I., Hulme, C., Concrete words are easier to recall than abstract words: Evidence for a semantic contribution to short-term serial recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 25:5 (1999), 1256–1271.
Watkins, O.C., Watkins, M.J., Serial recall and the modality effect: Effects of word frequency. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 3:6 (1977), 712–718.
Yap, M.J., Lim, G.Y., Pexman, P.M., Semantic richness effects in lexical decision: The role of feedback. Memory & Cognition 43:8 (2015), 1148–1167, 10.3758/s13421-015-0536-0.