Strategies for radiation dose reduction in nuclear cardiology and cardiac computed tomography imaging: a report from the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging (EACVI), the Cardiovascular Committee of European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM), and the European Society of Cardiovascular Radiology (ESCR).
Strategies for radiation dose reduction in nuclear cardiology and cardiac computed tomography imaging: a report from the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging (EACVI), the Cardiovascular Committee of European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM), and the European Society of Cardiovascular Radiology (ESCR).
WHO. Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs). Fact sheet no. 317. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2015.
Einstein AJ, Pascual TN, Mercuri M, Karthikeyan G, Vitola JV, Mahmarian JJ, Better N, Bouyoucef SE, Hee-Seung Bom H, Lele V, Magboo VP, Alexánderson E, Allam AH, Al-Mallah MH, Flotats A, Jerome S, Kaufmann PA, Luxenburg O, Shaw LJ, Underwood SR, Rehani MM, Kashyap R, Paez D, Dondi M; INCAPS Investigators Group. Current worldwide nuclear cardiology practices and radiation exposure: results from the 65 country IAEA Nuclear Cardiology Protocols Cross-Sectional Study (INCAPS). Eur Heart J 2015;36:1689-1696.
Picano E, Vañó E, Rehani MM, Cuocolo A, Mont L, Bodi V, Bar O, Maccia C, Pierard L, Sicari R, Plein S, Mahrholdt H, Lancellotti P, Knuuti J, Heidbuchel H, Di Mario C, Badano LP. The appropriate and justified use of medical radiation in cardiovascular imaging: a position document of the ESC Associations of Cardiovascular Imaging, Percutaneous Cardiovascular Interventions and Electrophysiology. Eur Heart J 2014;35:665-672.
Knuuti J, Bengel F, Bax JJ, Kaufmann PA, Le Guludec D, Perrone Filardi P, Marcassa C, Ajmone Marsan N, Achenbach S, Kitsiou A, Flotats A, Eeckhout E, Minn H, Hesse B. Risks and benefits of cardiac imaging: an analysis of risks related to imaging for coronary artery disease. Eur Heart J 2014;35:633-638.
Muller HJ. Nobel Prize Lecture. http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel-prizes/medi cine/laureates/1946/muller-lecture.html (2 February 2016).
ICRP. Low-dose extrapolation of radiation-related cancer risk. ICRP Publication 99. Ann ICRP 2005;35:1-140.
Lindner O, Pascual TN, Mercuri M, Acampa W, Burchert W, Flotats A, Kaufmann PA, Kitsiou A, Knuuti J, Underwood SR, Vitola JV, Mahmarian JJ, Karthikeyan G, Better N, Rehani MM, Kashyap R, Dondi M, Paez D, Einstein AJ; INCAPS Investigators Group. Nuclear cardiology practice and associated radiation doses in Europe: results of the IAEA Nuclear Cardiology Protocols Study (INCAPS) for the 27 European countries. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2016;43:718-728.
Einstein AJ, Berman DS, Min JK, Hendel RC, Gerber TC, Carr JJ, Cerqueira MD, Cullom SJ, DeKemp R, Dickert NW, Dorbala S, Fazel R, Garcia EV, Gibbons RJ, Halliburton SS, Hausleiter J, Heller GV, Jerome S, Lesser JR, Raff GL, Tilkemeier P, Williams KA, Shaw LJ. Patient-centered imaging: shared decision making for cardiac imaging procedures with exposure to ionizing radiation. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014;63:1480-1489.
Fuchs TA, Stehli J, Bull S, Dougoud S, Clerc OF, Herzog BA, Buechel RR, Gaemperli O, Kaufmann PA. Coronary computed tomography angiography with model-based iterative reconstruction using a radiation exposure similar to chest X-ray examination. Eur Heart J 2014;35:1131-1136.
Einstein AJ, Blankstein R, Andrews H, Fish M, Padgett R, Hayes SW, Friedman JD, Qureshi M, Rakotoarivelo H, Slomka P, Nakazato R, Bokhari S, Di Carli M, Berman DS. Comparison of image quality, myocardial perfusion, and left ventricular function between standard imaging and single-injection ultra-low-dose imaging using a highefficiency SPECT camera: the MILLISIEVERT study. J Nucl Med 2014;55:1430-1437.
Leuraud K, Richardson DB, Cardis E, Daniels RD, Gillies M, O'Hagan JA, Hamra GB, Haylock R, Laurier D, Moissonnier M, Schubauer-Berigan MK, Thierry-Chef I, Kesminiene A. Ionising radiation and risk of death from leukaemia and lymphoma in radiation-monitored workers (INWORKS): an international cohort study. Lancet Haematol 2015;2:e276-e281.
Bosch de Basea M, Pearce MS, Kesminiene A, Bernier MO, Dabin J, Engels H, Hauptmann M, Krille L, Meulepas JM, Struelens L, Baatout S, Kaijser M, Maccia C, Jahnen A, Thierry-Chef I, Blettner M, Johansen C, Kjaerheim K, Nordenskjöld A, Olerud H, Salotti JA, Andersen TV, Vrijheid M, Cardis E. EPI-CT: design, challenges and epidemiological methods of an international study on cancer risk after paediatric and young adult CT. J Radiol Prot 2015;35:611-628.
Shahbazi-Gahrouei D, Gholami M, Setayandeh S. A review on natural background radiation. Adv Biom Res 2013;2:65-67.
Alkadhi H, Leschka S. Radiation dose of cardiac computed tomography-what has been achieved and what needs to be done. Eur Radiol 2011;21:505-509.
Dorbala S, Blankstein R, Skali H, Park MA, Fantony J, Mauceri C, Semer J, Moore SC, Di Carli MF. Approaches to reducing radiation dose from radionuclide myocardial perfusion imaging. J Nucl Med 2015;56:592-599.
Bocher M, Blevis IM, Tsukerman L, Shrem Y, Kovalski G, Volokh L. A fast cardiac gamma camera with dynamic SPECT capabilities: design, system validation and future potential. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2010;37:1887-1902.
Imbert L, Poussier S, Franken PR, Songy B, Verger A, Morel O, Wolf D, Noel A, Karcher G, Marie PY. Compared performance of high-sensitivity cameras dedicated to myocardial perfusion SPECT: a comprehensive analysis of phantom and human images. J Nucl Med 2012;53:1897-1903.
Gimelli A, Bottai M, Giorgetti A, Genovesi D, Kusch A, Ripoli A, Marzullo P. Comparison between ultrafast and standard single-photon emission CT in patients with coronary artery disease: a pilot study. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2011;4:51-58.
DePuey EG. Advances in SPECT camera software and hardware: currently available and new on the horizon. J Nucl Cardiol 2012;19:551-581.
Schepis T, Gaemperli O, Treyer V, Valenta I, Burger C, Koepfli P, Namdar M, Adachi I, Alkadhi H, Kaufmann PA. Absolute quantification of myocardial blood flow with 13N-ammonia and 3-dimensional PET. J Nucl Med 2007;48:1783-1789.
Knesaurek K, Machac J, Krynyckyi BR, Almeida OD. Comparison of 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional 82Rb myocardial perfusion PET imaging. J Nucl Med 2003;44:1350-1356.
Flotats A, Knuuti J, Gutberlet M, Marcassa C, Bengel FM, Kaufmann PA, Rees MR, Hesse B; Cardiovascular Committee of the EANM, the ESCR and the ECNC. Hybrid cardiac imaging: SPECT/CT and PET/CT. A joint position statement by the European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM), the European Society of Cardiac Radiology (ESCR) and the European Council of Nuclear Cardiology (ECNC). Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2011;38:201-212.
Rischpler C, Nekolla SG, Dregely I, Schwaiger M. Hybrid PET/MR imaging of the heart: potential, initial experiences, and future prospects. J Nucl Med 2013;54: 402-415.
Vontobel J, Liga R, Possner M, Clerc OF, Mikulicic F, Veit-Haibach P, Ter Voert EE, Fuchs TA, Stehli J, Pazhenkottil AP, Benz DC, Gräni C, Gaemperli O, Herzog B, Buechel RR, Kaufmann PA. MR-based attenuation correction for cardiac FDG PET on a hybrid PET/MRI scanner: comparison with standard CT attenuation correction. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2015;42:1574-1580.
Husmann L, Valenta I, Gaemperli O, Adda O, Treyer V, Wyss CA, Veit-Haibach P, Tatsugami F, von Schulthess GK, Kaufmann PA. Feasibility of low-dose coronary CT angiography: first experience with prospective ECG-gating. Eur Heart J 2008;29:191-197.
Achenbach S, Marwan M, Ropers D, Schepis T, Pflederer T, Anders K, Kuettner A, Daniel WG, Uder M, Lell MM. Coronary computed tomography angiography with a consistent dose below 1 mSv using prospectively electrocardiogram-triggered high-pitch spiral acquisition. Eur Heart J 2010;31:340-346.
Hausleiter J, Meyer TS, Martuscelli E, Spagnolo P, Yamamoto H, Carrascosa P, Anger T, Lehmkuhl L, Alkadhi H, Martinoff S, Hadamitzky M, Hein F, Bischoff B, Kuse M, Schömig A, Achenbach S. Image quality and radiation exposure with prospectively ECG-triggered axial scanning for coronary CT angiography: the multicenter, multivendor, randomized PROTECTION-III study. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2012;5:484-493.
Deseive S, Pugliese F, Meave A, Alexanderson E, Martinoff S, Hadamitzky M, Massberg S, Hausleiter J. Image quality and radiation dose of a prospectively electrocardiography-triggered high-pitch data acquisition strategy for coronary CT angiography: the multicenter, randomized PROTECTION IV study. J Cardiovasc Comput Tomogr 2015;9:278-285.
Hell MM, Bittner D, Schuhbaeck A, Muschiol G, Brand M, Lell M, Uder M, Achenbach S, Marwan M. Prospectively ECG-triggered high-pitch coronary angiography with third-generation dual-source CT at 70 kVp tube voltage: feasibility, image quality, radiation dose, and effect of iterative reconstruction. J Cardiovasc Comput Tomogr 2014;8:418-425.
Yin WH, Lu B, Li N, Han L, Hou ZH, Wu RZ, Wu YJ, Niu HX, Jiang SL, Krazinski AW, Ebersberger U, Meinel FG, Schoepf UJ. Iterative reconstruction to preserve image quality and diagnostic accuracy at reduced radiation dose in coronary CT angiography: an intraindividual comparison. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2013;6:1239-1249.
Deseive S, Chen MY, Korosoglou G, Leipsic J, Martuscelli E, Carrascosa P, Mirsadraee S, White C, Hadamitzky M, Martinoff S, Menges AL, Bischoff B, Massberg S, Hausleiter J. Prospective randomized trial on radiation dose estimates of CT angiography applying iterative image reconstruction: the PROTECTION V study. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2015;8:888-896.
Benz DC, Gräni C, Hirt Moch B, Mikulicic F, Vontobel J, Fuchs TA, Stehli J, Clerc OF, Possner M, Pazhenkottil AP, Gaemperli O, Buechel RR, Kaufmann PA. Minimized Radiation and contrast agent exposure for coronary computed tomography angiography: first clinical experience on a latest generation 256-slice scanner. Acad Radiol 2016;23:1008-1014.
Verberne HJ, Acampa W, Anagnostopoulos C, Ballinger J, Bengel F, De Bondt P, Buechel RR, Cuocolo A, van Eck-Smit BL, Flotats A, Hacker M, Hindorf C, Kaufmann PA, Lindner O, Ljungberg M, Lonsdale M, Manrique A, Minarik D, Scholte AJ, Slart RH, Trägårdh E, de Wit TC, Hesse B; European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM). EANM procedural guidelines for radionuclide myocardial perfusion imaging with SPECT and SPECT/CT: 2015 revision. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2015;42:1929-1940.
Marcassa C, Zoccarato O, Calza P, Campini R. Temporal evolution of administered activity in cardiac gated SPECT and patients' effective dose: analysis of an historical series. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2013;40:325-330.
Andersson M, Johansson L, Minarik D, Leide-Svegborn S, Mattsson S. Effective dose to adult patients from 338 radiopharmaceuticals estimated using ICRP biokinetic data, ICRP/ICRU computational reference phantoms and ICRP 2007 tissue weighting factors. EJNMMI Phys 2014;1:9.
Duvall WL, Guma KA, Kamen J, Croft LB, Parides M, George T, Henzlova MJ. Reduction in occupational and patient radiation exposure from myocardial perfusion imaging: impact of stress-only imaging and high-efficiency SPECT camera technology. J Nucl Med 2013;54:1251-1257.
Gibson PB, Demus D, Noto R, Hudson W, Johnson LL. Low event rate for stress only perfusion imaging in patients evaluated for chest pain. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002; 39:999-1004.
Shaw LJ, Mieres JH, Hendel RH, Boden WE, Gulati M, Veledar E, Hachamovitch R, Arrighi JA, Merz CN, Gibbons RJ, Wenger NK, Heller GV; WOMEN Trial Investigators. Comparative effectiveness of exercise electrocardiography with or without myocardial perfusion single photon emission computed tomography in women with suspected coronary artery disease: results from the What Is the Optimal Method for Ischemia Evaluation in Women (WOMEN) trial. Circulation 2011;124:1239-1249.
Duvall WL, Croft LB, Ginsberg ES, Einstein AJ, Guma KA, George T, Henzlova MJ. Reduced isotope dose and imaging time with a high-efficiency CZT SPECT camera. J Nucl Cardio 2011;18:847-857.
Herzog BA, Buechel RR, Katz R, Brueckner M, Husmann L, Burger IA, Wolfrum M, Nkoulou RN, Valenta I, Ghadri JR, Treyer V, Kaufmann PA. Nuclear myocardial perfusion imaging with a cadmium-zinc-telluride detector technique: optimized protocol for scan time reduction. J Nucl Med 2010;51:46-51.
Nkoulou R, Pazhenkottil AP, Kuest SM, Ghadri JR, Wolfrum M, Husmann L, Fiechter M, Buechel RR, Herzog BA, Koepfli P, Burger C, Gaemperli O, Kaufmann PA. Semiconductor detectors allow low-dose-low-dose 1-day SPECT myocardial perfusion imaging. J Nucl Med 2011;52:1204-1209.
Oddstig J, Hedeer F, Jogi J, Carlsson M, Hindorf C, Engblom H. Reduced administered activity, reduced acquisition time, and preserved image quality for the new CZT camera. J Nucl Cardiol 2013;20:38-44.
Acampa W, Buechel RR, Gimelli A. Low dose in nuclear cardiology: state of the art in the era of new cadmium-zinc-telluride cameras. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging 2016;17:591-595.
Neglia D, Michelassi C, Trivieri MG, Sambuceti G, Giorgetti A, Pratali L, Gallopin M, Salvadori P, Sorace O, Carpeggiani C, Poddighe R, L'Abbate A, Parodi O. Prognostic role of myocardial blood flow impairment in idiopathic left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation 2002;105:186-193.
Cecchi F, Olivotto I, Gistri R, Lorenzoni R, Chiriatti G, Camici PG. Coronary microvascular dysfunction and prognosis in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 2003;349:1027-1035.
Schindler TH, Schelbert HR, Quercioli A, Dilsizian V. Cardiac PET imaging for the detection and monitoring of coronary artery disease and microvascular health. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2010;3:623-640.
Murthy VL, Naya M, Foster CR, Hainer J, Gaber M, Di Carli G, Blankstein R, Dorbala S, Sitek A, Pencina MJ, Di Carli MF. Improved cardiac risk assessment with noninvasive measures of coronary flow reserve. Circulation 2011;124:2215-2224.
Murthy VL, Naya M, Foster CR, Gaber M, Hainer J, Klein J, Dorbala S, Blankstein R, Di Carli MF. Association between coronary vascular dysfunction and cardiac mortality in patients with and without diabetes mellitus. Circulation 2012;126:1858-1868.
Berman DS, Maddahi J, Tamarappoo BK, Czernin J, Taillefer R, Udelson JE, Gibson CM, Devine M, Lazewatsky J, Bhat G, Washburn D. Phase II safety and clinical comparison with single-photon emission computed tomography myocardial perfusion imaging for detection of coronary artery disease: flurpiridaz F 18 positron emission tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013;61:469-477.
Danad I, Uusitalo V, Kero T, Saraste A, Raijmakers PG, Lammertsma AA, Heymans MW, Kajander SA, Pietilä M, James S, Sörensen J, Knaapen P, Knuuti J. Quantitative assessment of myocardial perfusion in the detection of significant coronary artery disease: cutoff values and diagnostic accuracy of quantitative [(15)O]H2O PET imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014;64:1464-1475.
Gerber BL, Ordoubadi FF, Wijns W, Vanoverschelde JL, Knuuti MJ, Janier M, Melon P, Blanksma PK, Bol A, Bax JJ, Melin JA, Camici PG. Positron emission tomography using (18)F-fluoro-deoxyglucose and euglycaemic hyperinsulinaemic glucose clamp: optimal criteria for the prediction of recovery of post-ischaemic left ventricular dysfunction. Results from the European community concerted action multicenter study on use of (18)F-fluoro-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography for the detection of myocardial viability. Eur Heart J 2001;22: 1691-1701.
Gould KL, Pan T, Loghin C, Johnson NP, Sdringola S. Reducing radiation dose in rest-stress cardiac PET/CT by single poststress cine CT for attenuation correction: quantitative validation. J Nucl Med 2008;49:738-745.
Halliburton SS, Abbara S, Chen MY, Gentry R, Mahesh M, Raff GL, Shaw LJ, Hausleiter J; Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography. SCCT guidelines on radiation dose and dose optimization strategies in cardiovascular CT. J Cardiovasc Computed Tomogr 2011;4:198-202.
Buechel RR, Husmann L, Herzog BA, Pazhenkottil AP, Nkoulou R, Ghadri JR, Treyer V, von Schulthess P, Kaufmann PA. Low-dose computed tomography coronary angiography with prospective electrocardiogram triggering: feasibility in a large population. J Am Coll Cardiol 2011;57:332-336.
Maruyama T, Takada M, Hasuike T, Yoshikawa A, Namimatsu E, Yoshizumi T. Radiation dose reduction and coronary assessability of prospective electrocardiogramgated computed tomography coronary angiography: comparison with retrospective electrocardiogram-gated helical scan. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008;52:1450-1455.
Gaemperli O, Schepis T, Valenta I, Husmann L, Scheffel H, Duerst V, Eberli FR, Luscher TF, Alkadhi H, Kaufmann PA. Cardiac image fusion from stand-alone SPECT and CT: clinical experience. J Nucl Med 2007;48:696-703.
Liga R, Vontobel J, Rovai D, Marinelli M, Caselli C, Pietila M, Teresinska A, Aguadé- Bruix S, Pizzi MN, Todiere G, Gimelli A, Chiappino D, Marraccini P, Schroeder S, Drosch T, Poddighe R, Casolo G, Anagnostopoulos C, Pugliese F, Rouzet F, Le Guludec D, Cappelli F, Valente S, Gensini GF, Zawaideh C, Capitanio S, Sambuceti G, Marsico F, Filardi PP, Fernández-Golfín C, Rincón LM, Graner FP, de Graaf MA, Stehli J, Reyes E, Nkomo S, Mäki M, Lorenzoni V, Turchetti G, Carpeggiani C, Puzzuoli S, Mangione M, Marcheschi P, Giannessi D, Nekolla S, Lombardi M, Sicari R, Scholte AJ, Zamorano JL, Underwood SR, Knuuti J, Kaufmann PA, Neglia D, Gaemperli O; EVINCI Study Investigators. Multicentre multi-device hybrid imaging study of coronary artery disease: results from the EValuation of INtegrated Cardiac Imaging for the Detection and Characterization of Ischaemic Heart Disease (EVINCI) hybrid imaging population. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging 2016;17:951-960.
Benz DC, Templin C, Kaufmann PA, Buechel RR. Ultra-low-dose hybrid single photon emission computed tomography and coronary computed tomography angiography: A comprehensive and non-invasive diagnostic workup of suspected coronary artery disease. Eur Heart J 2015;36:3345-3348.
Depuey EG, Mahmarian JJ, Miller TD, Einstein AJ, Hansen CL, Holly TA, Miller EJ, Polk DM, Samuel Wann L. Patient-centered imaging. J Nucl Cardiol 2012;19:185-215.
Task Force Members, Montalescot G, Sechtem U, Achenbach S, Andreotti F, Arden C, Budaj A, Bugiardini R, Crea F, Cuisset T, Di Mario C, Ferreira JR, Gersh BJ, Gitt AK, Hulot JS, Marx N, Opie LH, Pfisterer M, Prescott E, Ruschitzka F, Sabaté M, Senior R, Taggart DP, van der WEE, Vrints CJ; ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines, Zamorano JL, Achenbach S, Baumgartner H, Bax JJ, Bueno H, Dean V, Deaton C, Erol C, Fagard R, Ferrari R, Hasdai D, Hoes AW, Kirchhof P, Knuuti J, Kolh P, Lancellotti P, Linhart A, Nihoyannopoulos P, Piepoli MF, Ponikowski P, Sirnes PA, Tamargo JL, Tendera M, Torbicki A, Wijns W, Windecker S; Document Reviewers, Knuuti J, Valgimigli M, Bueno H, Claeys MJ, Donner-Banzhoff N, Erol C, Frank H, Funck-Brentano C, Gaemperli O, Gonzalez-Juanatey JR, Hamilos M, Hasdai D, Husted S, James SK, Kervinen K, Kolh P, Kristensen SD, Lancellotti P, Maggioni AP, Piepoli MF, Pries AR, Romeo F, Rydén L, Simoons ML, Sirnes PA, Steg PG, Timmis A, Wijns W, Windecker S, Yildirir A, Zamorano JL. 2013 ESC guidelines on the management of stable coronary artery disease: the Task Force on the management of stable coronary artery disease of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J 2013;34:2949-3003.
Fiechter M, Stehli J, Fuchs TA, Dougoud S, Gaemperli O, Kaufmann PA. Impact of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging on human lymphocyte DNA integrity. Eur Heart J 2013;34:2340-2345.
Lancellotti P, Nchimi A, Delierneux C, Hego A, Gosset C, Gothot A, Jean-Flory Tshibanda L, Oury C. Biological effects of cardiac magnetic resonance on human blood cells. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2015;8:e003697.
Gimelli A, Lancellotti P, Badano LP, Lombardi M, Gerber B, Plein S, Neglia D, Edvardsen T, Kitsiou A, Scholte AJ, Schröder S, Cosyns B, Gargiulo P, Zamorano JL, Perrone-Filardi P. Non-invasive cardiac imaging evaluation of patients with chronic systolic heart failure: a report from the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging (EACVI). Eur Heart J 2014;35:3417-3425.
Garbi M, Edvardsen T, Bax J, Petersen SE, McDonagh T, Filippatos G, Lancellotti P; Reviewer Panel. EACVI appropriateness criteria for the use of cardiovascular imaging in heart failure derived from European National Imaging Societies voting. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging 2016;17:711-721.
Habib G, Lancellotti P, Antunes MJ, Bongiorni MG, Casalta JP, Del Zotti F, Dulgheru R, El Khoury G, Erba PA, Iung B, Miro JM, Mulder BJ, Plonska-Gosciniak E, Price S, Roos-Hesselink J, Snygg-Martin U, Thuny F, Tornos Mas P, Vilacosta I, Zamorano JL; Document Reviewers, Erol Ç, Nihoyannopoulos P, Aboyans V, Agewall S, Athanassopoulos G, Aytekin S, Benzer W, Bueno H, Broekhuizen L, Carerj S, Cosyns B, De Backer J, De Bonis M, Dimopoulos K, Donal E, Drexel H, Flachskampf FA, Hall R, Halvorsen S, Hoen B, Kirchhof P, Lainscak M, Leite-Moreira AF, Lip GY, Mestres CA, Piepoli MF, Punjabi PP, Rapezzi C, Rosenhek R, Siebens K, Tamargo J, Walker DM. 2015 ESC guidelines for the management of infective endocarditis: the task force for the management of infective endocarditis of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Endorsed by: European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS), the European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM). Eur Heart J 2015;36:3075-3128.
Karunanithi S, Sharma P, Bal C, Kumar R. (18)F-FDG PET/CT for diagnosis and treatment response evaluation in large vessel vasculitis. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2014;41:586-587.
Piepoli MF, Hoes AW, Agewall S, Albus C, Brotons C, Catapano AL, Cooney MT, Corrà U, Cosyns B, Deaton C, Graham I, Hall MS, Hobbs FD, Løchen ML, Löllgen H, Marques-Vidal P, Perk J, Prescott E, Redon J, Richter DJ, Sattar N, Smulders Y, Tiberi M, van der Worp HB, van Dis I, Verschuren WM; Authors/Task Force Members. 2016 European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: the sixth Joint Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice (constituted by representatives of 10 societies and by invited experts) developed with the special contribution of the European Association for Cardiovascular Prevention & Rehabilitation (EACPR). Eur Heart J 2016;37:2315-2381.
Chest pain of recent onset: assessment and diagnosis. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG9 (5 November 2016).
Al-Mallah MH, Aljizeeri A, Villines TC, Srichai MB, Alsaileek A. Cardiac computed tomography in current cardiology guidelines. J Cardiovasc Comput Tomogr 2015;9: 514-523.
Roffi M, Patrono C, Collet JP, Mueller C, Valgimigli M, Andreotti F, Bax JJ, Borger MA, Brotons C, Chew DP, Gencer B, Hasenfuss G, Kjeldsen K, Lancellotti P, Landmesser U, Mehilli J, Mukherjee D, Storey RF, Windecker S, Baumgartner H, Gaemperli O, Achenbach S, Agewall S, Badimon L, Baigent C, Bueno H, Bugiardini R, Carerj S, Casselman F, Cuisset T, Erol Ç, Fitzsimons D, Halle M, Hamm C, Hildick-Smith D, Huber K, Iliodromitis E, James S, Lewis BS, Lip GY, Piepoli MF, Richter D, Rosemann T, Sechtem U, Steg PG, Vrints C, Luis Zamorano J. 2015 ESC guidelines for the management of acute coronary syndromes in patients presenting without persistent ST-segment elevation: task force for the management of acute coronary syndromes in patients presenting without persistent ST segment elevation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J 2016;37:267-315.
Vahanian A, Alfieri O, Andreotti F, Antunes MJ, Baron-Esquivias G, Baumgartner H, Borger MA, Carrel TP, De Bonis M, Evangelista A, Falk V, Iung B, Lancellotti P, Pierard L, Price S, Schafers H-J, Schuler G, Stepinska J, Swedberg K, Takkenberg J, Von Oppell UO, Windecker S, Zamorano JL, Zembala M, Bax JJ, Baumgartner H, Ceconi C, Dean V, Deaton C, Fagard R, Funck-Brentano C, Hasdai D, Hoes A, Kirchhof P, Knuuti J, Kolh P, McDonagh T, Moulin C, Popescu BA, Reiner Z, Sechtem U, Sirnes PA, Tendera M, Torbicki A, Vahanian A, Windecker S, Popescu BA, Von Segesser L, Badano LP, Bunc M, Claeys MJ, Drinkovic N, Filippatos G, Habib G, Kappetein AP, Kassab R, Lip GYH, Moat N, Nickenig G, Otto CM, Pepper J, Piazza N, Pieper PG, Rosenhek R, Shuka N, Schwammenthal E, Schwitter J, Mas PT, Trindade PT, Walther T. Joint task force on the management of valvular heart disease of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS). Guidelines on the management of valvular heart disease (version 2012). Eur Heart J 2012;33:2451-2496.
Camm AJ, Lip GY, De Caterina R, Savelieva I, Atar D, Hohnloser SH, Hindricks G, Kirchhof P; ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines (CPG). Guidelines 2012 focused update of the ESC Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation: an update of the 2010 ESC Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation. Developed with the special contribution of the European Heart Rhythm Association. Eur Heart J 2012;33:2719-2727.
Adler Y, Charron P, Imazio M, Badano L, Barón-Esquivias G, Bogaert J, Brucato A, Gueret P, Klingel K, Lionis C, Maisch B, Mayosi B, Pavie A, Ristić AD, Sabaté Tenas M, Seferovic P, Swedberg K, Tomkowski W, Achenbach S, Agewall S, Al-Attar N, Angel Ferrer J, Arad M, Asteggiano R, Bueno H, Caforio AL, Carerj S, Ceconi C, Evangelista A, Flachskampf F, Giannakoulas G, Gielen S, Habib G, Kolh P, Lambrinou E, Lancellotti P, Lazaros G, Linhart A, Meurin P, Nieman K, Piepoli MF, Price S, Roos-Hesselink J, Roubille F, Ruschitzka F, Sagristà Sauleda J, Sousa-Uva M, Uwe Voigt J, Luis Zamorano J; European Society of Cardiology (ESC). 2015 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of pericardial diseases: the task force for the diagnosis and management of pericardial diseases of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) endorsed by: the European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS). Eur Heart J 2015;36:2921-2964.
Medicare Part B imaging services: rapid spending growth and shift to physician offices indicate need for CMS to consider additional management practices. Washington, DC: Government Accountability Office. 2008. http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d08452.pdf (accessed 19 February 2016).
