[en] Based on an extensive survey of woodland visitors in Wallonia, south Belgium, we examined a widerange of individual-, residential- and destination-level variables for their associations with the distancetravelled for woodland leisure on foot, by bicycle and by car. For each transport mode, explanatorybivariate analyses were conducted firstly to identify potential correlates of the distances travelled. Then,cross-classified multilevel analysis was performed to build estimation models for the trip distance. Theresults showed that, amongst the multilevel variables selected, walking trip distance was only associatedwith individual trip behaviour, while cycling and car-borne trip distance could also be associated withindividual socio-economic profile as well as a large range of residential and destination attributes onland use, land cover and visitor support services. The final estimation model for (i) walking trip distanceincluded trip duration as the only explanatory variable, for (ii) cycling trip distance included variables ontrip duration, proportion of woodland area at residence and presence of service facilities at destination,and for (iii) car-borne trip distance included variables on trip duration, visitor’s employment status,whether the trip is on weekend or in summer, proportion of woodland area at residence and remotenessof destination from urban area. Despite being simple in form, all multilevel estimation models showa satisfactory explanatory power and a better performance than the ordinary single-level models. Ourresults add new empirical evidences on the key factors associated with the transport mode-specific traveldistance, in particular, for woodland leisure. The cross-classified multilevel analysis used in our studyprovides new methodological insights for the estimation of individual trip distance, which could benefitfuture modelling of woodland recreation demand.
Barbieri C., Sotomayor S. Surf travel behavior and destination preferences: an application of the Serious Leisure Inventory and Measure. Tour. Manage. 2013, 35:111-121. 10.1016/j.tourman.2012.06.005.
Bliese P.D. Within-group agreement, non-independence and reliability: implications for data aggregation and analysis. Multilevel Theory, Research, and Methods in Organizations: Foundations, Extensions and New Directions 2000, 349-381. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. K.J. Klein, S.W. Kozlowski (Eds.).
Bottai M., Salvati N., Orsini N. Multilevel models for analyzing people's daily movement behavior. J. Geogr. Syst. 2006, 8:97-108. 10.1007/s10109-006-0017-x.
Brainard J., Bateman I., Lovett A. Modelling demand for recreation in English woodlands. Forestry 2001, 74:423-438. 10.1093/forestry/74.5.423.
Bujosa Bestard A., Riera Font A. Estimating the aggregate value of forest recreation in a regional context. J. Forest Econ. 2010, 16:205-216. 10.1016/j.jfe.2009.11.005.
Cao X., Mokhtarian P.L., Handy S.L. Examining the impacts of residential self-selection on travel behaviour: a focus on empirical findings. Transp. Rev. 2009, 29:359-395. 10.1080/01441640802539195.
Cervero R., Kockelman K. Travel demand and the 3Ds: density, diversity, and design. Transp. Res. D: Transp. Environ. 1997, 2:199-219. 10.1016/S1361-9209(97)00009-6.
Colson V. La fréquentation des massifs forestiers à des fins récréatives et de détente pour la population wallonne et bruxelloise. Forêt Wallonne 2006, 81:26-38.
Colson V. La fréquentation des massifs forestiers wallons: le public, ses activités et sa perception de la forêt. Forêt Wallonne 2007, 87:20-35.
Colson V. La fonction récréative des massifs forestiers wallons: analyses et évaluation dans le cadre d'une politique forestière intégrée 2009, Gembloux Agricultural University, Gembloux.
Colson V., Garcia S., Rondeux J., Lejeune P. Map and determinants of woodlands visiting in Wallonia. Urban For. Urban Green. 2010, 9:83-91. 10.1016/j.ufug.2009.04.002.
Colson V., Lejeune P., Rondeux J., Hamaide B. Recreational Value of Regional Forests: The Case of Belgium's Walloon Region 2012, Université Saint-Louis, Brussels.
Davis P., Scott A. The effect of interviewer variance on domain comparisons. Surv. Methodol. 1995, 21:99-106.
de Vries S., Goossen M. Modelling recreational visits to forests and nature areas. Urban For. Urban Green. 2002, 1:5-14. 10.1078/1618-8667-00002.
Dieleman F.M., Dijst M., Burghouwt G. Urban form and travel behaviour: micro-level household attributes and residential context. Urban Stud. 2002, 39:507-527. 10.1080/00420980220112801.
Din A., Hoesli M., Bender A. Environmental variables and real estate prices. Urban Stud. 2001, 38:1989-2000. 10.1080/00420980120080899.
Elldér E. Residential location and daily travel distances: the influence of trip purpose. J. Transp. Geogr. 2014, 34:121-130. 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2013.11.008.
Ewert A.W. A comparison of urban-proximate and urban-distant wilderness users on selected variables. Environ. Manage. 1998, 22:927-935. 10.1007/s002679900159.
Ewing R., Cervero R. Travel and the built environment. J. Am. Plan. Assoc. 2010, 76:265-294. 10.1080/01944361003766766.
Feng J., Dijst M., Prillwitz J., Wissink B. Travel time and distance in international perspective: a comparison between Nanjing (China) and the Randstad (The Netherlands). Urban Stud. 2013, 50:2993-3010. 10.1177/0042098013482504.
Fielding A., Goldstein H. Cross-Classified and Multiple Membership Structures in Multilevel Models: An Introduction and Review 2006.
Frank L.D., Sallis J.F., Conway T.L., Chapman J.E., Saelens B.E., Bachman W. Many pathways from land use to health: associations between neighborhood walkability and active transportation, body mass index, and air quality. J. Am. Plan. Assoc. 2006, 72:75-87. 10.1080/01944360608976725.
Fredman P., Romild U., Yuan M., Wolf-Watz D. Latent demand and time contextual constraints to outdoor recreation in Sweden. Forests 2012, 3:1.
Goldstein H. Multilevel Statistical Models 2011, John Wiley & Sons.
Hörnsten L., Fredman P. On the distance to recreational forests in Sweden. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2000, 51:1-10. 10.1016/S0169-2046(00)00097-9.
Hox J.J. Multilevel Analysis: Techniques and Applications 2002, Psychology Press.
Lafortezza R., Carrus G., Sanesi G., Davies C. Benefits and well-being perceived by people visiting green spaces in periods of heat stress. Urban For. Urban Green. 2009, 8:97-108. 10.1016/j.ufug.2009.02.003.
LaMondia J., Aultman-Hall L., Greene E. Long-distance work and leisure travel frequencies. Transp. Res. Rec.: J. Transp. Res. Board 2014, 2413:1-12. 10.3141/2413-01.
Leckie G. Cross-classified hierarchical linear modeling. Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research 2014, 1359-1363. Springer, Netherlands. A. Michalos (Ed.).
Li S., Colson V., Lejeune P., Speybroeck N., Vanwambeke S.O. Agent-based modelling of the spatial pattern of leisure visitation in forests: a case study in Wallonia, south Belgium. Environ. Model. Softw. 2015, 71:111-125. 10.1016/j.envsoft.2015.06.001.
Limtanakool N., Dijst M., Schwanen T. The influence of socioeconomic characteristics, land use and travel time considerations on mode choice for medium- and longer-distance trips. J. Transp. Geogr. 2006, 14:327-341. 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2005.06.004.
Mercado R., Páez A. Determinants of distance traveled with a focus on the elderly: a multilevel analysis in the Hamilton CMA, Canada. J. Transp. Geogr. 2009, 17:65-76. 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2008.04.012.
Nicolau J.L., Más F.J. The influence of distance and prices on the choice of tourist destinations: the moderating role of motivations. Tour. Manage. 2006, 27:982-996. 10.1016/j.tourman.2005.09.009.
Ode Å., Fry G. A model for quantifying and predicting urban pressure on woodland. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2006, 77:17-27. 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2005.01.003.
Ohnmacht T., Götz K., Schad H. Leisure mobility styles in Swiss conurbations: construction and empirical analysis. Transportation 2009, 36:243-265. 10.1007/s11116-009-9198-8.
Quené H., van den Bergh H. On multi-level modeling of data from repeated measures designs: a tutorial. Speech Commun. 2004, 43:103-121. 10.1016/j.specom.2004.02.004.
Roovers P., Hermy M., Gulinck H. Visitor profile, perceptions and expectations in forests from a gradient of increasing urbanisation in central Belgium. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2002, 59:129-145. 10.1016/S0169-2046(02)00011-7.
Scheiner J. Social inequalities in travel behaviour: trip distances in the context of residential self-selection and lifestyles. J. Transp. Geogr. 2010, 18:679-690. 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2009.09.002.
Scott D., Jones B., Konopek J. Implications of climate and environmental change for nature-based tourism in the Canadian Rocky Mountains: A case study of Waterton Lakes National Park. Tour. Manage. 2007, 28:570-579. 10.1016/j.tourman.2006.04.020.
Silvis J., Niemeier D., D'Souza R. Social networks and travel behavior: report from an integrated travel diary. Kyoto 2006.
Snijders T., Bosker R. Multilevel Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Multilevel Modeling 1999, Sage, London.
Van Acker V., Van Wee B., Witlox F. When transport geography meets social psychology: toward a conceptual model of travel behaviour. Transp. Rev. 2010, 30:219-240. 10.1080/01441640902943453.
Velarde M.D., Fry G., Tveit M. Health effects of viewing landscapes - landscape types in environmental psychology. Urban For. Urban Green. 2007, 6:199-212. 10.1016/j.ufug.2007.07.001.
Wynen J. Explaining travel distance during same-day visits. Tour. Manage. 2013, 36:133-140. 10.1016/j.tourman.2012.11.007.
Zaccarin S., Rivellini G. Multilevel analysis in social research: an application of a cross-classified model. Stat. Methods Appl. 2002, 11:95-108. 10.1007/bf02511448.
Zandersen M., Tol R.S.J. A meta-analysis of forest recreation values in Europe. J. Forest Econ. 2009, 15:109-130. 10.1016/j.jfe.2008.03.006.